From: =?Windows-1252?Q?Enregistr=E9_par_Windows_Internet_Explorer=A07?= Subject: Hukou - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Date: Sat, 8 Mar 2008 08:49:24 +0100 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C880F9.4F11FC90" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.0.6000.16545 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C880F9.4F11FC90 Content-Type: text/html; charset="utf-8" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukou =EF=BB=BF
A h=C3=B9k=C7=92u (Chinese: = =E6=88=B7=E5=8F=A3) or h=C3=B9j=C3=AD (Chinese: = =E6=88=B6=E7=B1=8D) refers to the system of = residency permits which dates=20 back to the 1950s where household registration is required by law in mainland China = and Taiwan.
A household registration record officially identifies a person as a = resident=20 of an area and includes identifying information such the name of the = person,=20 date of birth, the names of parents, and name of spouse, if married.
A hukou can also refer to a family = register in many=20 contexts since the household registration record = (=E6=88=B6=E7=B1=8D=E8=AC=84=E6=9C=AC, h=C3=B9j=C3=ADt=C3=A9ngb=C4=9Bn) = is issued=20 per family, and usually includes the births, deaths, marriages, = divorces, and=20 moves, of all members in the family. A similar household registration = system=20 exists within the public administration structures of Japan (koseki), Vietnam (H=E1=BB=99=20 kh=E1=BA=A9u) and North Korea (Hoju). In South Korea the Hoju system = was=20 abolished on 1 January 2008.
Contents |
Family = registers were in=20 existence in China as early as the Xia Dynasty. In = the=20 centuries which followed, the family register developed into an = organization of=20 families and clans for purposes of taxation, conscription and social=20 control.
According to the Examination of Hukou in Wenxian = Tongkao=20 published in 1317, there was a minister for population management during = the Zhou=20 Dynasty named Simin (Chinese: = =E5=8F=B8=E6=B0=91), who was responsible for = recoding births, deaths,=20 emigrations and immigrations. The Rites of Zhou = notes that=20 three copies of documents were kept in different places. The = administrative=20 divisions in Zhou Dynasty were a function of the distance to the state = capital.=20 The top division nearest the capital was named Dubi (Chinese: = =E9=83=BD=E9=84=99), top division in more distant = areas were named Xiang=20 (Chinese: = =E4=B9=A1) and Sui (Chinese: = =E9=81=82). Families are organized under the Baojia=20 system.
Guan=20 Zhong, Prime Minister of the Qi state 7th = century BCE,=20 imposed different taxation and conscription policies on different = areas[1]. In = addition,=20 Guan Zhong also banned immigration, emigration, and separation of = families=20 without permission[2]. In the Book of = Lord=20 Shang, Shang Yang also = described his=20 policy banning immigrations and emigrations[3].
Xiao He,=20 the first Chancellor of the Han Dynasty, added = the=20 chapter of Hu (Chinese: = =E6=88=B7=E5=BE=8B) as one of the nine=20 basic laws of Han (Chinese: = =E4=B9=9D=E7=AB=A0=E5=BE=8B), and established the = Hukou system as the basis=20 of tax revenue and conscription.
The Communist = Party=20 came to power in the late 1940s, instigated a command = economy. In the=20 1958, Mao=20 Zedong set up an hereditary residency permit system defining where = people=20 could work. Individuals were broadly categorised as "rural" or "urban"=20 worker.[4] = A worker=20 seeking to move from the country to urban areas to take up = non-agricultural work=20 would have to apply through the relevant bureaucracies. The number of = workers=20 allowed to make such moves was tightly controlled. Migrant workers would = require=20 six passes to work in provinces other than their own.[5] = People who=20 worked outside their authorized domain or geographical area would not = qualify=20 for grain rations, employer-provided housing, or health care.[6] = There=20 were controls over education, employment, marriage and so on.[4]= P>
With its large rural population of poor farm workers, hukou limited = mass=20 migration from the land to the cities to ensure some structural = stability. The=20 hukou system was an instrument of the command = economy. By=20 regulating labour, it ensured an adequate supply of low cost workers to = the=20 plethora of state= owned=20 businesses.[7]<= /P>
For some time, the Chinese=20 Ministry of Public Security continued to justify these hukou system = on=20 public order grounds, and also provided demographic data for government = central=20 planning.[8]= P>
The Hukou system has been justified by some scholars as increasing = the=20 stability of China by better monitoring of "Targeted persons", people = who are=20 politically dubious by the Party's standards, this is still a = significant=20 function as of 2006 [9]
From around 1953 to 1976, Police would periodically round up those = who=20 without valid residence permit, place them in detention centres and = expel them=20 from cities.[10]
Administration regulations issued in 1982 known as "custody = and=20 repatriation" authorized police to detain people, and "repatriate" = them to=20 their permanent residency location.
Although an individual is technically required to live in the area = designated=20 on his/her permit, in practice the system has largely broken down. After = Chinese=20 market reforms, it became possible for some to unofficially migrate = and get=20 a job without a valid permit. Economic reforms also created pressures to = encourage migration from the interior to the coast. It also provided = incentives=20 for officials not to enforce regulations on migration.
Technology has made it easier to enforce the Hukou system as now the = police=20 force has a national database of official Hukou registrations, this was = made=20 possible by computerisation in the nineties, and greater co-operation = between=20 the different regional police authorities [11]
From around 1953 to 1976, the enforcement of non-portable rights = associated=20 with one's domicile created an underclass. Urban dwellers enjoy a range = of=20 social, economic and cultural benefits while China's 800 million rural=20 population was treated as second-class citizens.[7] = However,=20 the ruling party made some concessions to rural workers to make life in = rural=20 areas "survivable... if not easy or pleasant". [12]
From 1978 to 2001, as China transitioned from state capitalism to = market=20 capitalism, export-processing zones were created in city suburbs, where = mostly=20 female migrants worked under oppressive conditions.[12]=20 Restrictions placed on the mobility of migrant workers were = pervasive,[5] = and=20 transient workers were forced to live a precarious existence in company=20 dormitories or shanty towns, and = suffering=20 abusive consequences.[13]
=The impact of hukou system on migrant laborers became = particularly=20 onerous in the 1980s after hundreds of millions of were forced out of = state=20 corporations and co-operatives.[5]=20 Since the 1980s, an estimated 200 million Chinese live outside their=20 officially-registered areas, with much less access to education and = government=20 services, and in several respects occupy a social and economic status = similar to=20 illegal = immigrants.[7] = The=20 millions of peasants who have since quit the land remain stuck at the = margins of=20 urban society, and have been blamed for the rising crime and = unemployment. Under=20 pressure from their citizens, city governments impose discriminatory = rules.[4]= P>
The hukou system has been described as "China's = apartheid".[14][15] The=20 gradual relaxation of some of the more repressive aspects of the = hukou=20 system since the mid-1990s has largely eliminated the spatial aspect of = the "apartheid". However, = as the=20 hukou remains hereditary, the "substance of the social apartheid = remains=20 intact."[16]= SUP>
The similarity to South Africa's apartheid system end in two areas: = Firstly,=20 under a system called xia fang, or "sending down", individuals or = groups=20 of urban workers were sometimes re-classified as rural workers and = banished to=20 the countryside (at lower wages and benefits), often as a sentence for=20 "bourgeois imperialist crimes" during the Cultural = Revolution;=20 by contrast, white workers in South Africa were never sent to work in Bantustans. Second, = the=20 ideology driving China's apartheid system was Maoism, not racism.[12]
Some Mainland Chinese based scholars claim that though the Hukou = system is=20 discriminatory, it is no worse then the passport system keeping people = from=20 developing countries from resettling in the West.[17]. A = system which=20 has been called global = apartheid
Reforming the residency system has been a very controversial topic = within the=20 PRC. Although the system in operation was widely regarded within the PRC = as=20 unfair and inhumane, there were fears that liberalisation would result = in a=20 massive influx to the cities which would stress already strained = government=20 services beyond the breaking point, and result in further economic loss = to rural=20 areas, rising social unrest and crime.[7]<= /P>
On the other hand, there has been recognition for some time that = hukou=20 is an impediment to economic development.[4] = China's=20 accession to the World = Trade=20 Organisation has forced it to embrace this reform to liberalise the = movement=20 of labour, speeding up its economic reform[18]
The system has undergone further relaxation since the mid 1990s. The = first=20 relaxation allowed rural residents to buy a temporary urban residency = permits,=20 meaning they could work legally; fees for these decreased gradually to a = fairly=20 affordable level. The discrimination against rural women has been = alleviated=20 from 1998, when hukou became inheritable through either the = father=E2=80=99s or the=20 mother=E2=80=99s line.[16]= SUP>
From 2001 onwards, hukou controls were weakened. In 2003, = after the=20 uproar surrounding the death of Sun Zhigang = alarmed the=20 authorities, the laws on Custody and repatriation were repealed;[16]= SUP> by=20 2004 the Chinese Ministry of Agriculture estimated that over 100 million = people=20 registered as "rural" were working in cities.[12]
When Taiwan=20 was under Japanese rule from 1895 to 1945, the Japanese government = maintained=20 the same system of household registration (koseki) as they did in other = parts of=20 the Empire of = Japan. This=20 system of household registration, with minor changes, has been = continued.=20 Records concerning native Taiwanese are fairly complete. Records of Mainlanders=20 date back to the date they first applied for registration with the local = household registration office, and are based on information provided by = the=20 applicant.
While all ROC nationals, including overseas = Chinese with=20 no connection to Taiwan, can apply for a ROC=20 passport, proper household registration is required for obtaining a = ROC ID Card, which = is often=20 used as proof of citizenship, such as in national elections, and an ID = number is=20 needed to open bank accounts. Unlike in mainland China, residency can be = easily=20 changed with the local authorities and household registration does not = serve as=20 a tool to limit a resident's movements within Taiwan.
Hukou is not employed in the speci= al=20 administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, though = identification cards=20 are mandatory for residents there.
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addOnloadHook( MainPageDeletedImage );=0A=
=0A=
/** Change Special:Search to use a drop-down menu =
*******************************************************=0A=
*=0A=
* Description: Change Special:Search to use a drop-down menu, with =
the default being=0A=
* the internal MediaWiki engine=0A=
* Created and maintained by: [[User:Gracenotes]]=0A=
*/=0A=
=0A=
if (wgPageName =3D=3D "Special:Search") {=0A=
var searchEngines =3D [];=0A=
addOnloadHook(SpecialSearchEnhanced);=0A=
}=0A=
=0A=
function SpecialSearchEnhanced() {=0A=
var createOption =3D function(site, action, mainQ, addQ, addV) {=0A=
var opt =3D document.createElement('option');=0A=
opt.appendChild(document.createTextNode(site));=0A=
searchEngines[searchEngines.length] =3D [action, mainQ, =
addQ, addV];=0A=
return opt;=0A=
}=0A=
var searchForm =3D document.forms['search'];=0A=
var selectBox =3D document.createElement('select');=0A=
selectBox.id =3D 'searchEngine';=0A=
searchForm.onsubmit =3D function() {=0A=
var optSelected =3D =
searchEngines[document.getElementById('searchEngine').selectedIndex];=0A=
searchForm.action =3D optSelected[0];=0A=
searchForm.lsearchbox.name =3D optSelected[1];=0A=
searchForm.title.value =3D optSelected[3];=0A=
searchForm.title.name =3D optSelected[2];=0A=
}=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('MediaWiki search', =
wgScriptPath + '/index.php', 'search', 'title', 'Special:Search'));=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('Google', =
'http://www.google.com/search', 'q', 'sitesearch', 'en.wikipedia.org'));=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('Yahoo', =
'http://search.yahoo.com/search', 'p', 'vs', 'en.wikipedia.org'));=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('Windows Live', =
'http://search.live.com/results.aspx', 'q', 'q1', =
'site:http://en.wikipedia.org'));=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('Wikiwix', =
'http://www.wikiwix.com/', 'action', 'lang', 'en'));=0A=
selectBox.appendChild(createOption('Exalead', =
'http://www.exalead.com/wikipedia/results', 'q', 'language', 'en'));=0A=
searchForm.lsearchbox.style.marginLeft =3D '0px';=0A=
var lStat =3D document.getElementById('loadStatus');=0A=
lStat.parentNode.insertBefore(selectBox, lStat);=0A=
}=0A=
=0A=
/** Geo-targeted watchlist notice =
*******************************************************=0A=
*=0A=
* Description: Allows for geographic targeting of watchlist notices. =
See [[Wikipedia:Geonotice]] for more information.=0A=
* Created by: [[User:Gmaxwell]]=0A=
*/=0A=
=0A=
if (wgPageName =3D=3D "Special:Watchlist")=0A=
addOnloadHook((function (){document.write('